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Macrophages Macrophages. MΦ are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues.

Macrophages were discovered by Ilya Mechnikov, a Russian bacteriologist, in Human macrophages are about 21 micrometres 0. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes.

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Macrophages function in both non-specific defense innate immunity as well as help initiate specific defense mechanisms adaptive immunity of vertebrate animals. Their role is to phagocytose, or engulf and then digest, cellular debris and pathogens, either as stationary or as mobile cells.

They also stimulate lymphocytes and other immune cells to respond to pathogens. They are specialized phagocytic cells that attack foreign substances, infectious microbes and cancer cells through destruction and ingestion.

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They are present in all living tissues, and have a function in regeneration. They move by action of amoeboid movement.

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Life cycle. When a monocyte enters damaged tissue through the endothelium of a blood vessel, a process known as the leukocyte extravasation, it undergoes a series of changes to become a macrophage. Monocytes are attracted to a damaged site by chemical substances through chemotaxis, triggered by a range of stimuli including damaged cells, pathogens and cytokines released by macrophages already at the site.

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At some sites such as the testis, macrophages have been shown to populate the organ through proliferation. Unlike short-lived neutrophils, macrophages survive longer in the body up to a maximum of several months.

Macrophages are highly specialized in removal of dying or papillary urothelial cancer icd 10 cells and cellular debris.

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This role is important in chronic inflammation, as the early stages of inflammation are dominated by neutrophil granulocytes, which are ingested by macrophages if causes of breast papilloma come of age see CD31 for a description of this process.

The neutrophils are at first attracted to a site, before they are phagocytized by the macrophages. The aged neutrophils are eventually ingested by the macrophages usually within the first 2 days, when the stimulated macrophages first appear, just after the first wave of proliferating neutrophils are expended.

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The removal of dying cells is, to a greater extent, handled by fixed macrophages, which will stay at strategic locations such as the lungs, liver, neural tissue, bone, spleen and connective tissue, ingesting foreign materials such as pathogens and recruiting additional macrophages if needed. When a macrophage ingests a pathogen, the pathogen becomes trapped in a phagosome, which then fuses with a lysosome. Within the phagolysosome, enzymes and toxic peroxides digest the pathogen.

However, some bacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, have become resistant to these methods of digestion.

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Macrophages can digest more than bacteria before they finally die due to their own digestive compounds. Role in adaptive immunity.

Macrophages are versatile cells that play many roles. As scavengers, they rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris. Along with dendritic cells, they are foremost among the cells that "present" antigen, a crucial role in initiating an immune response.

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As secretory cells, monocytes and macrophages are vital to the regulation of immune responses and the development of inflammation; they produce a wide array of powerful chemical substances monokines including enzymes, complement proteins, and regulatory factors such as interleukin At the same time, they carry receptors for lymphokines that allow them to be "activated" into single-minded pursuit cancer caile biliare microbes and tumour cells.

After digesting a pathogen, a macrophage will present the antigen a molecule, most often a protein found on the surface of the pathogen and used by the immune system for identification of the pathogen to the corresponding helper T cell.

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The presentation is done by integrating it into the cell membrane and displaying it attached to an MHC class II molecule, indicating to other white blood cells that the macrophage is not a pathogen, despite having antigens on its surface. Eventually, the antigen presentation results in the production of antibodies that attach to the antigens of pathogens, making them easier for macrophages to adhere to with their cell membrane and phagocytose.

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In some cases, pathogens are very resistant to adhesion by the macrophages. The antigen presentation on the surface of infected macrophages in the context of MHC class II in a lymph node stimulates TH1 type 1 helper T cells to proliferate mainly due to IL secretion from the macrophage.

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When a B-cell in the lymph node recognizes the same unprocessed surface antigen on the bacterium with its surface bound antibody, the antigen is endocytosed and processed. T cells that express the T cell receptor which recognizes the antigen-MHCII complex with co-stimulatory factors- CD40 and CD40L papillary urothelial cancer icd 10 the B-cell to produce antibodies that help opsonisation of the antigen so that papillary urothelial cancer icd 10 bacteria can be better cleared by phagocytes.

Macrophages provide yet another line of defense against tumor cells and somatic cells infected with fungus or parasites. Once a T cell has recognized its particular antigen on the surface of an aberrant cell, the T cell becomes an activated effector cell, producing chemical mediators known as lymphokines that stimulate macrophages into a more aggressive form. Currently, it is a major opinion that there are several activated forms of macrophages.

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In spite of a spectrum of ways to activate macrophages, historically they have been classfied into two main groups designated M1 and M2. M1 macrophages, or classically activated macrophages, are immune effector cells that are aggressive against microbes and can engulf and digest affected cells much more readily, and they also produce many lymphokines.

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As more ways to activate macrophages become apparent, the M2 designation is becoming a catch-all to describe other types, including those that function in wound healing and tissue repair, and those that turn off immune system activation by producing anti-inflammatory papillary urothelial cancer icd 10 like IL M2, or alternatively activated macrophages, are activated by IL-4 and produce high levels of IL and low levels of IL